A Portal on Biotechnology

Terminology

31.01.1999 · Research Group on the Global Future

Biodiversity
The existence of a wide rang of different types of organisms in a given place at a given time. The word - a contraction of "biological diversity" - is sometimes used as a synonym for "life on earth". Its specific meaning, referring to the number, variety and variability of living organisms is central to the debate about 21st century values, thinking and action. As species adapt to one another and to their communities, they form niches and guilds. The development of more complex structures allows a greater number of species to coexist with one another. The increase in species richness and complexity acts to buffer the community from environmental stresses and disasters, rendering it more stable. At the moment an astronomic amount of 30 millions terrestrial occupants and a further 10 million for marine invertebrates are living on earth. But our biodiversity is in danger. By the year 2025, the earth could lose as many as one fifth of all species known to exist today.

Biotechnology
Broadly defined, the use of biological processes of microbes, plant or animal cells for the benefit of humans. The scientific manipulation of living organisms, especially at the molecular genetic level, to produce useful products. When used in conjunction with genetic engineering, it is the genetic modification of the DNA of an organism such that the transformed individual has new traits that enhance survival or modify quality. The actual use of biotechnological methods began centuries ago, when plants and animals were selectively bred and microorganisms were used in the production of beer, wine, cheese and bread. In addition to genetic engineering, biotechnology encompasses the industrial use of living organisms or biological techniques developed through basic research in biological science. Now it is concerned with such areas as plant tissue culture, gene splicing, enzyme system, plant breeding, animal cell culture, immunology, molecular biology and fermentation. Biotechnology products include antibiotics, insulin, interferon, recombinant DNA, and techniques such as waste recycling. Modern biotechnology is not only used in medicine, but also in fuel production, agriculture, food production and criminal science as well as in environmental activities.

Bt-Crops
Crops that are genetically engineered to carry the gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The bacterium produces a protein that is toxic when ingested by individual species of insects, thereby providing protection throughout the entire plant. In 1999 the Unites States earned 72% of their total amount of harvest from genetically modified organisms. Most of them are corn, soybeans and cotton.For this year the total volume of genetically modified food worldwide might be about 40 billions US $.

Clone/Cloning
A clone is an exact genetic replica of a specific gene or an entire organism asexually descendent from a common ancestor. Cloning is the mitotic division of a progenitor cell to give rise to a population of identical daughter cells or clones. This does no necessarily mean absolute conformity in physical appearance or personal characteristics. In 1997 the cloning of a mammal, a sheep called "Dolly" took place for the first time in history.

Chromosome
A single DNA molecule, a tightly coited strant of DNA, condensed into a compact structure in vivo by complexing with accessory histones or histone-like proteins. Chromosomes exist in pairs. The structure is found in the nucleus of a cell, which contains the genes.

Embryo
The Embryo is an organism in the early stages of development in humans; this may refer to the period between the 3rd cell division of the fertilized egg and the point when the body shape is essentially formed (generally the beginning of the third month of pregnancy).

Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that act as a catalyst and control the various steps in all chemical reactions. It affects the rate at which chemical reactions occur in a cell.

Eugenics
Literally "well born." The attempt of artificial selection towards a particular set of desired characteristics. The proposed improvement of the genetic composition by encouraging breeding between those presumed to have desirable genes (positive eugenics) and discouraging breeding of those presumed to have undesirable genes (negative eugenics).

Gene
A gene is a unit of hereditary information that occupies a fixed position (locus) on a chromosome. Genes achieve their effects by directing the synthesis of proteins. Genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), except in some viruses, which have genes consisting of a closely related compound called ribonucleic acid (RNA). A DNA molecule is composed of two chains of nucleotides that wind about each other to resemble a twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made up of sugars and phosphates; bonded pairs of nitrogenous bases form the rungs. These bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thyme (T).

Genome
The total genetic information possessed by an individual organism. Each cell contains a complete copy of the genome. The human genome is estimated to contain 100 000 to 150 000 genes.

Genomics
Sequencing and characterization of the genome and analysis of the relationship between gene activity and cell function.

Genetic code
The Genetic code is a four-letter code that translates nucleic acid sequence into protein sequence. The relationship between the nucleotide base-pair triplets of a messenger RNA molecule and the 20 amino acids that are the building blocks of proteins. Both determine the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis.

Genetic engineering
Very broadly, a technique used to alter or move genetic material (genes) of living cells. It is the artificial manipulation, modification and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid molecules in order to modify an organism or population of organisms. In the United States, under guidelines issued by the Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
An organism produced from genetic engineering techniques that allow the transfer of inherited characteristics from one organism to another. Bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, insects, fish and mammals are some examples of genetic material that have been artificially changed or altered in order to change some physical property or capability. Living modified organisms (LMOs), genetically engineered (GE) foods and transgenic crops are other terms often used in place of GMOs.

Genetic test
The Genetic test is a certain procedure where you can examine the genes of a patient, in order to analyze the cause of a hereditary disease. Genome The genetic complement contained in the chromosomes of a given organism, usually the haploid chromosome state.

Gene therapy
Treatment that alters genes (the basic units of heredity found in all cells in the body). Treatment of disease in the affected individual is twofold in nature, being directed (1) toward restoration of a normal physiological state and (2) toward removal of the causative agent. The diseased organism itself plays an active part in both respects, having the capacity for tissue proliferation to replace damaged tissue.

GM Food
Genetically modified food. See GMOs. In 1998, the industrial countries earned 84% of the harvest out of GMOs. Nine countries work with genetically modified seeds, mostly for corn and soybeans.

Germline
Pertaining of the cells from which gametes are derived. When referring to species, the cells of the germline, unlike somatic cells, bridge the gaps between generations.

Germline genetic engineering
Human germline manipulations are those made to the genes of our germinal or reproductive cells (the egg and the sperm). In practice today, this means altering the fertilized egg, the first cell in the embryo to be, so that the genetic changes will be copied into every cell of the future adult, including his or her reproductive cells.

Germline enhancement
Alteration of the genetic code in the reproductive cells to change a non-pathological trait and thereby produce an "improved" person or organism.

Germline Therapy
Germline Therapy means the repair or replacement of a defective gene within the gamete-forming tissues, which produces a heritable change in an organism's genetic constitution. The defect of a gene does not exist anymore. So Germline Therapy has consequences for the heredity of the next generations. Germline therapy stands in sharp contrast to the genetic therapy of today, which is somatic (treating the soma or the body cells). For example, genetic insertions to treat cystic fibrosis are directed at cells in the lining of the lung mucosa. Somatic interventions do not reach beyond the patient being treated, so their potential scope is obviously much more limited than a germline intervention.

Herbicide-tolerant Crops
Crops developed to survive certain herbicides. These crops previously would have been destroyed along with targeted weeds, but now can be used by farmers as an effective weed control. The most common herbicide-tolerant crops (cotton, corn, soybeans and canola) are marketed under such names as Roundup Ready, resistant to glyphosate, a herbicide effective on many species of grasses, broadleaf weeds and sedges, Liberty Link corn, resistant to glufosinate ammonium and BNX cotton, resistant to bromoxynil.

Homologous
Describing the relationship between a pair of structures or processes that show a fundamental similarity because of their having descended from a common ancestor. Homologous structures in related species have the same evolutionary origin although their functions may differ widely: e.g. the flipper of a seal and the wing of a bat. Homologous genes in a genome share a similar DANN base sequence because they arose by duplication of an ancestral gene.

In vitro
In vitro means outside of a living organism, for example in vitro fertilization. This procedure is a medical procedure in which mature egg cells are removed from a woman, fertilized with male sperm outside the body and inserted into the uterus of the same or another woman for normal gestation.

In vivo
Latin phrase meaning "in life"; in the living organism as opposed to in vitro.

Living Modified Organism
Living modified organism, identical with GMO, means any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology. It can be any biological entity capable of transferring or replicating genetic material, including sterile organisms, viruses and viroids.

mRNA
Messenger RNA; an expressed gene that is then translated into a protein.

Mutation
Mutation is an alteration in the DNA structure or sequence of a gene. This means a heritable change in the structure of a gene.

Phenotype
The observable biochemical, anatomical and behavioral traits of an organism, as determined by its genotype in conjunction with its environment.

Plant breeding
The technique of crossing plants to produce varieties with particular characteristics (traits) that are carried in their genes and passed on to future generations.

Protein
A polymer of amino acids linked via peptide bonds which may be composed of two or more polypeptide chains.

Stemm cells
The cells from which all blood cells develop.

Transgenetic Plants/Animals
Transgenetic plants are the result from the insertion of genetic material from another organism, generally through recombinant DNA techniques, to make the plant exhibit a desired trait.

Vector
An autonomously replicating DNA molecule into which foreign DNA fragments are inserted and then propagated in a host cell. Also living carriers of genetic material (such as pollen) from plant, such as insects.

Xenotransplantation
Transfer of animal organs into human body. The announcement in February 1997 of the birth of Dolly the sheep, the first clone of an adult mammal, attracted international attention because of the new medical and agricultural opportunities and the new ethical concerns raised by the breakthrough.

Zygote
A fertilized egg, before it begins dividing.